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Dear Maik Saatze
Good day! Thank you for posting in Microsoft Community. We are happy to help you.
Based on your description, it seems that you can't install OneDrive app in Windows Server 2012. As you mentioned, according to OneDrive system requirements, Windows Server 2012 (including R2) is one of the supported OS on which OneDrive sync client can be installed via the the support article
For the error message you got, we did a test on our end , and I experienced the same error when installing production version of OneDrive 22.002.0103.0004 on Windows server 2012. So, I tried installing Deferred version and it was successful.
Please try installing version 21.230.1107.0004 of Deferred ring and you should be able to install OneDrive sync app.
Welcome to post back and update the latest situation to us. We’re looking forward to your reply and will continue to help you all the time! If there are any misunderstanding or unclear, you can post back in your free time.
Your understanding and patience will be highly appreciated. I hope that you are keeping safe and well!
Sincerely,
Stacey | Microsoft Community Moderator