Sure, you can use the $filter operator. Here's an example for a given SID:
GET https://graph.microsoft.com/v1.0/groups?$filter=securityIdentifier eq 'S-1-12-1-143658405-1084415652-4082819753-371914418'
Keep in mind that not every property is filterable though. And some of them require "advanced" filters, as detailed here.
Oh and if you want to return only a single property and not the full object, use something like this:
GET https://graph.microsoft.com/v1.0/groups?$filter=securityIdentifier eq 'S-1-12-1-143658405-1084415652-4082819753-371914418'&$select=displayName