PowerShell scripting performance considerations
PowerShell scripts that leverage .NET directly and avoid the pipeline tend to be faster than idiomatic PowerShell. Idiomatic PowerShell uses cmdlets and PowerShell functions, often leveraging the pipeline, and resorting to .NET only when necessary.
Note
Many of the techniques described here aren't idiomatic PowerShell and may reduce the readability of a PowerShell script. Script authors are advised to use idiomatic PowerShell unless performance dictates otherwise.
Suppressing output
There are many ways to avoid writing objects to the pipeline.
- Assignment or file redirection to
$null - Casting to
[void] - Pipe to
Out-Null
The speeds of assigning to $null, casting to [void], and file redirection to $null are almost
identical. However, calling Out-Null in a large loop can be significantly slower, especially in
PowerShell 5.1.
$tests = @{
'Assign to $null' = {
$arrayList = [System.Collections.ArrayList]::new()
foreach ($i in 0..$args[0]) {
$null = $arraylist.Add($i)
}
}
'Cast to [void]' = {
$arrayList = [System.Collections.ArrayList]::new()
foreach ($i in 0..$args[0]) {
[void] $arraylist.Add($i)
}
}
'Redirect to $null' = {
$arrayList = [System.Collections.ArrayList]::new()
foreach ($i in 0..$args[0]) {
$arraylist.Add($i) > $null
}
}
'Pipe to Out-Null' = {
$arrayList = [System.Collections.ArrayList]::new()
foreach ($i in 0..$args[0]) {
$arraylist.Add($i) | Out-Null
}
}
}
10kb, 50kb, 100kb | ForEach-Object {
$groupResult = foreach ($test in $tests.GetEnumerator()) {
$ms = (Measure-Command { & $test.Value $_ }).TotalMilliseconds
[pscustomobject]@{
Iterations = $_
Test = $test.Key
TotalMilliseconds = [math]::Round($ms, 2)
}
[GC]::Collect()
[GC]::WaitForPendingFinalizers()
}
$groupResult = $groupResult | Sort-Object TotalMilliseconds
$groupResult | Select-Object *, @{
Name = 'RelativeSpeed'
Expression = {
$relativeSpeed = $_.TotalMilliseconds / $groupResult[0].TotalMilliseconds
[math]::Round($relativeSpeed, 2).ToString() + 'x'
}
}
}
These tests were run on a Windows 11 machine in PowerShell 7.3.4. The results are shown below:
Iterations Test TotalMilliseconds RelativeSpeed
---------- ---- ----------------- -------------
10240 Assign to $null 36.74 1x
10240 Redirect to $null 55.84 1.52x
10240 Cast to [void] 62.96 1.71x
10240 Pipe to Out-Null 81.65 2.22x
51200 Assign to $null 193.92 1x
51200 Cast to [void] 200.77 1.04x
51200 Redirect to $null 219.69 1.13x
51200 Pipe to Out-Null 329.62 1.7x
102400 Redirect to $null 386.08 1x
102400 Assign to $null 392.13 1.02x
102400 Cast to [void] 405.24 1.05x
102400 Pipe to Out-Null 572.94 1.48x
The times and relative speeds can vary depending on the hardware, the version of PowerShell, and the current workload on the system.
Array addition
Generating a list of items is often done using an array with the addition operator:
$results = @()
$results += Get-Something
$results += Get-SomethingElse
$results
Array addition is inefficient because arrays have a fixed size. Each addition to the array creates a new array big enough to hold all elements of both the left and right operands. The elements of both operands are copied into the new array. For small collections, this overhead may not matter. Performance can suffer for large collections.
There are a couple of alternatives. If you don't actually require an array, instead consider using
a typed generic list ([List<T>]):
$results = [System.Collections.Generic.List[object]]::new()
$results.AddRange((Get-Something))
$results.AddRange((Get-SomethingElse))
$results
The performance impact of using array addition grows exponentially with the size of the collection
and the number additions. This code compares explicitly assigning values to an array with using
array addition and using the Add(T) method on a [List<T>] object. It defines explicit assignment
as the baseline for performance.
$tests = @{
'PowerShell Explicit Assignment' = {
param($count)
$result = foreach($i in 1..$count) {
$i
}
}
'.Add(T) to List<T>' = {
param($count)
$result = [Collections.Generic.List[int]]::new()
foreach($i in 1..$count) {
$result.Add($i)
}
}
'+= Operator to Array' = {
param($count)
$result = @()
foreach($i in 1..$count) {
$result += $i
}
}
}
5kb, 10kb, 100kb | ForEach-Object {
$groupResult = foreach($test in $tests.GetEnumerator()) {
$ms = (Measure-Command { & $test.Value -Count $_ }).TotalMilliseconds
[pscustomobject]@{
CollectionSize = $_
Test = $test.Key
TotalMilliseconds = [math]::Round($ms, 2)
}
[GC]::Collect()
[GC]::WaitForPendingFinalizers()
}
$groupResult = $groupResult | Sort-Object TotalMilliseconds
$groupResult | Select-Object *, @{
Name = 'RelativeSpeed'
Expression = {
$relativeSpeed = $_.TotalMilliseconds / $groupResult[0].TotalMilliseconds
[math]::Round($relativeSpeed, 2).ToString() + 'x'
}
}
}
These tests were run on a Windows 11 machine in PowerShell 7.3.4.
CollectionSize Test TotalMilliseconds RelativeSpeed
-------------- ---- ----------------- -------------
5120 PowerShell Explicit Assignment 26.65 1x
5120 .Add(T) to List<T> 110.98 4.16x
5120 += Operator to Array 402.91 15.12x
10240 PowerShell Explicit Assignment 0.49 1x
10240 .Add(T) to List<T> 137.67 280.96x
10240 += Operator to Array 1678.13 3424.76x
102400 PowerShell Explicit Assignment 11.18 1x
102400 .Add(T) to List<T> 1384.03 123.8x
102400 += Operator to Array 201991.06 18067.18x
When you're working with large collections, array addition is dramatically slower than adding to
a List<T>.
When using a [List<T>] object, you need to create the list with a specific type, like [String]
or [Int]. When you add objects of a different type to the list, they are cast to the specified
type. If they can't be cast to the specified type, the method raises an exception.
$intList = [System.Collections.Generic.List[int]]::new()
$intList.Add(1)
$intList.Add('2')
$intList.Add(3.0)
$intList.Add('Four')
$intList
MethodException:
Line |
5 | $intList.Add('Four')
| ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
| Cannot convert argument "item", with value: "Four", for "Add" to type
"System.Int32": "Cannot convert value "Four" to type "System.Int32".
Error: "The input string 'Four' was not in a correct format.""
1
2
3
When you need the list to be a collection of different types of objects, create it with [Object]
as the list type. You can enumerate the collection inspect the types of the objects in it.
$objectList = [System.Collections.Generic.List[object]]::new()
$objectList.Add(1)
$objectList.Add('2')
$objectList.Add(3.0)
$objectList | ForEach-Object { "$_ is $($_.GetType())" }
1 is int
2 is string
3 is double
If you do require an array, you can call the ToArray() method on the list or you can let
PowerShell create the array for you:
$results = @(
Get-Something
Get-SomethingElse
)
In this example, PowerShell creates an [ArrayList] to hold the results written to the pipeline
inside the array expression. Just before assigning to $results, PowerShell converts the
[ArrayList] to an [Object[]].
String addition
Strings are immutable. Each addition to the string actually creates a new string big enough to hold the contents of both the left and right operands, then copies the elements of both operands into the new string. For small strings, this overhead may not matter. For large strings, this can affect performance and memory consumption.
There are at least two alternatives:
- The
-joinoperator concatenates strings - The .NET
[StringBuilder]class provides a mutable string
The following example compares the performance of these three methods of building a string.
$tests = @{
'StringBuilder' = {
$sb = [System.Text.StringBuilder]::new()
foreach ($i in 0..$args[0]) {
$sb = $sb.AppendLine("Iteration $i")
}
$sb.ToString()
}
'Join operator' = {
$string = @(
foreach ($i in 0..$args[0]) {
"Iteration $i"
}
) -join "`n"
$string
}
'Addition Assignment +=' = {
$string = ''
foreach ($i in 0..$args[0]) {
$string += "Iteration $i`n"
}
$string
}
}
10kb, 50kb, 100kb | ForEach-Object {
$groupResult = foreach ($test in $tests.GetEnumerator()) {
$ms = (Measure-Command { & $test.Value $_ }).TotalMilliseconds
[pscustomobject]@{
Iterations = $_
Test = $test.Key
TotalMilliseconds = [math]::Round($ms, 2)
}
[GC]::Collect()
[GC]::WaitForPendingFinalizers()
}
$groupResult = $groupResult | Sort-Object TotalMilliseconds
$groupResult | Select-Object *, @{
Name = 'RelativeSpeed'
Expression = {
$relativeSpeed = $_.TotalMilliseconds / $groupResult[0].TotalMilliseconds
[math]::Round($relativeSpeed, 2).ToString() + 'x'
}
}
}
These tests were run on a Windows 11 machine in PowerShell 7.4.2. The output shows that the -join
operator is the fastest, followed by the [StringBuilder] class.
Iterations Test TotalMilliseconds RelativeSpeed
---------- ---- ----------------- -------------
10240 Join operator 14.75 1x
10240 StringBuilder 62.44 4.23x
10240 Addition Assignment += 619.64 42.01x
51200 Join operator 43.15 1x
51200 StringBuilder 304.32 7.05x
51200 Addition Assignment += 14225.13 329.67x
102400 Join operator 85.62 1x
102400 StringBuilder 499.12 5.83x
102400 Addition Assignment += 67640.79 790.01x
The times and relative speeds can vary depending on the hardware, the version of PowerShell, and the current workload on the system.
Processing large files
The idiomatic way to process a file in PowerShell might look something like:
Get-Content $path | Where-Object Length -GT 10
This can be an order of magnitude slower than using .NET APIs directly. For example, you can use the
.NET [StreamReader] class:
try {
$reader = [System.IO.StreamReader]::new($path)
while (-not $reader.EndOfStream) {
$line = $reader.ReadLine()
if ($line.Length -gt 10) {
$line
}
}
}
finally {
if ($reader) {
$reader.Dispose()
}
}
You could also use the ReadLines method of [System.IO.File], which wraps StreamReader,
simplifies the reading process:
foreach ($line in [System.IO.File]::ReadLines($path)) {
if ($line.Length -gt 10) {
$line
}
}
Looking up entries by property in large collections
It's common to need to use a shared property to identify the same record in different collections, like using a name to retrieve an ID from one list and an email from another. Iterating over the first list to find the matching record in the second collection is slow. In particular, the repeated filtering of the second collection has a large overhead.
Given two collections, one with an ID and Name, the other with Name and Email:
$Employees = 1..10000 | ForEach-Object {
[PSCustomObject]@{
Id = $_
Name = "Name$_"
}
}
$Accounts = 2500..7500 | ForEach-Object {
[PSCustomObject]@{
Name = "Name$_"
Email = "Name$_@fabrikam.com"
}
}
The usual way to reconcile these collections to return a list of objects with the ID, Name, and Email properties might look like this:
$Results = $Employees | ForEach-Object -Process {
$Employee = $_
$Account = $Accounts | Where-Object -FilterScript {
$_.Name -eq $Employee.Name
}
[pscustomobject]@{
Id = $Employee.Id
Name = $Employee.Name
Email = $Account.Email
}
}
However, that implementation has to filter all 5000 items in the $Accounts collection once for
every item in the $Employee collection. That can take minutes, even for this single-value lookup.
Instead, you can make a Hash Table that uses the shared Name property as a key and the matching account as the value.
$LookupHash = @{}
foreach ($Account in $Accounts) {
$LookupHash[$Account.Name] = $Account
}
Looking up keys in a hash table is much faster than filtering a collection by property values. Instead of checking every item in the collection, PowerShell can check if the key is defined and use its value.
$Results = $Employees | ForEach-Object -Process {
$Email = $LookupHash[$_.Name].Email
[pscustomobject]@{
Id = $_.Id
Name = $_.Name
Email = $Email
}
}
This is much faster. While the looping filter took minutes to complete, the hash lookup takes less than a second.
Use Write-Host carefully
The Write-Host command should only be used when you need to write formatted text to the host
console, rather than writing objects to the Success pipeline.
Write-Host can be an order of magnitude slower than [Console]::WriteLine() for specific hosts
like pwsh.exe, powershell.exe, or powershell_ise.exe. However, [Console]::WriteLine() isn't
guaranteed to work in all hosts. Also, output written using [Console]::WriteLine() doesn't get
written to transcripts started by Start-Transcript.
JIT compilation
PowerShell compiles the script code to bytecode that's interpreted. Beginning in PowerShell 3, for code that's repeatedly executed in a loop, PowerShell can improve performance by Just-in-time (JIT) compiling the code into native code.
Loops that have fewer than 300 instructions are eligible for JIT-compilation. Loops larger than that are too costly to compile. When the loop has executed 16 times, the script is JIT-compiled in the background. When the JIT-compilation completes, execution is transferred to the compiled code.
Avoid repeated calls to a function
Calling a function can be an expensive operation. If you're calling a function in a long running tight loop, consider moving the loop inside the function.
Consider the following examples:
$tests = @{
'Simple for-loop' = {
param([int] $RepeatCount, [random] $RanGen)
for ($i = 0; $i -lt $RepeatCount; $i++) {
$null = $RanGen.Next()
}
}
'Wrapped in a function' = {
param([int] $RepeatCount, [random] $RanGen)
function Get-RandomNumberCore {
param ($rng)
$rng.Next()
}
for ($i = 0; $i -lt $RepeatCount; $i++) {
$null = Get-RandomNumberCore -rng $RanGen
}
}
'for-loop in a function' = {
param([int] $RepeatCount, [random] $RanGen)
function Get-RandomNumberAll {
param ($rng, $count)
for ($i = 0; $i -lt $count; $i++) {
$null = $rng.Next()
}
}
Get-RandomNumberAll -rng $RanGen -count $RepeatCount
}
}
5kb, 10kb, 100kb | ForEach-Object {
$rng = [random]::new()
$groupResult = foreach ($test in $tests.GetEnumerator()) {
$ms = Measure-Command { & $test.Value -RepeatCount $_ -RanGen $rng }
[pscustomobject]@{
CollectionSize = $_
Test = $test.Key
TotalMilliseconds = [math]::Round($ms.TotalMilliseconds,2)
}
[GC]::Collect()
[GC]::WaitForPendingFinalizers()
}
$groupResult = $groupResult | Sort-Object TotalMilliseconds
$groupResult | Select-Object *, @{
Name = 'RelativeSpeed'
Expression = {
$relativeSpeed = $_.TotalMilliseconds / $groupResult[0].TotalMilliseconds
[math]::Round($relativeSpeed, 2).ToString() + 'x'
}
}
}
The Basic for-loop example is the base line for performance. The second example wraps the random number generator in a function that's called in a tight loop. The third example moves the loop inside the function. The function is only called once but the code still generates the same amount of random numbers. Notice the difference in execution times for each example.
CollectionSize Test TotalMilliseconds RelativeSpeed
-------------- ---- ----------------- -------------
5120 for-loop in a function 9.62 1x
5120 Simple for-loop 10.55 1.1x
5120 Wrapped in a function 62.39 6.49x
10240 Simple for-loop 17.79 1x
10240 for-loop in a function 18.48 1.04x
10240 Wrapped in a function 127.39 7.16x
102400 for-loop in a function 179.19 1x
102400 Simple for-loop 181.58 1.01x
102400 Wrapped in a function 1155.57 6.45x
Avoid wrapping cmdlet pipelines
Most cmdlets are implemented for the pipeline, which is a sequential syntax and process. For example:
cmdlet1 | cmdlet2 | cmdlet3
Initializing a new pipeline can be expensive, therefore you should avoid wrapping a cmdlet pipeline into another existing pipeline.
Consider the following example. The Input.csv file contains 2100 lines. The Export-Csv command
is wrapped inside the ForEach-Object pipeline. The Export-Csv cmdlet is invoked for every
iteration of the ForEach-Object loop.
$measure = Measure-Command -Expression {
Import-Csv .\Input.csv | ForEach-Object -Begin { $Id = 1 } -Process {
[PSCustomObject]@{
Id = $Id
Name = $_.opened_by
} | Export-Csv .\Output1.csv -Append
}
}
'Wrapped = {0:N2} ms' -f $measure.TotalMilliseconds
Wrapped = 15,968.78 ms
For the next example, the Export-Csv command was moved outside of the ForEach-Object pipeline.
In this case, Export-Csv is invoked only once, but still processes all objects passed out of
ForEach-Object.
$measure = Measure-Command -Expression {
Import-Csv .\Input.csv | ForEach-Object -Begin { $Id = 2 } -Process {
[PSCustomObject]@{
Id = $Id
Name = $_.opened_by
}
} | Export-Csv .\Output2.csv
}
'Unwrapped = {0:N2} ms' -f $measure.TotalMilliseconds
Unwrapped = 42.92 ms
The unwrapped example is 372 times faster. Also, notice that the first implementation requires the Append parameter, which isn't required for the later implementation.
Use OrderedDictionary to dynamically create new objects
There are situations where we may need to dynamically create objects based on some input, the
perhaps most commonly used way to create a new PSObject and then add new properties using the
Add-Member cmdlet. The performance cost for small collections using this technique may be
negligible however it can become very noticeable for big collections. In that case, the recommended
approach is to use an [OrderedDictionary] and then convert it to a PSObject using the
[pscustomobject] type accelerator. For more information, see the Creating ordered dictionaries
section of about_Hash_Tables.
Assume you have the following API response stored in the variable $json.
{
"tables": [
{
"name": "PrimaryResult",
"columns": [
{ "name": "Type", "type": "string" },
{ "name": "TenantId", "type": "string" },
{ "name": "count_", "type": "long" }
],
"rows": [
[ "Usage", "63613592-b6f7-4c3d-a390-22ba13102111", "1" ],
[ "Usage", "d436f322-a9f4-4aad-9a7d-271fbf66001c", "1" ],
[ "BillingFact", "63613592-b6f7-4c3d-a390-22ba13102111", "1" ],
[ "BillingFact", "d436f322-a9f4-4aad-9a7d-271fbf66001c", "1" ],
[ "Operation", "63613592-b6f7-4c3d-a390-22ba13102111", "7" ],
[ "Operation", "d436f322-a9f4-4aad-9a7d-271fbf66001c", "5" ]
]
}
]
}
Now, suppose you want to export this data to a CSV. First you need to create new objects and add the
properties and values using the Add-Member cmdlet.
$data = $json | ConvertFrom-Json
$columns = $data.tables.columns
$result = foreach ($row in $data.tables.rows) {
$obj = [psobject]::new()
$index = 0
foreach ($column in $columns) {
$obj | Add-Member -MemberType NoteProperty -Name $column.name -Value $row[$index++]
}
$obj
}
Using an OrderedDictionary, the code can be translated to:
$data = $json | ConvertFrom-Json
$columns = $data.tables.columns
$result = foreach ($row in $data.tables.rows) {
$obj = [ordered]@{}
$index = 0
foreach ($column in $columns) {
$obj[$column.name] = $row[$index++]
}
[pscustomobject] $obj
}
In both cases the $result output would be same:
Type TenantId count_
---- -------- ------
Usage 63613592-b6f7-4c3d-a390-22ba13102111 1
Usage d436f322-a9f4-4aad-9a7d-271fbf66001c 1
BillingFact 63613592-b6f7-4c3d-a390-22ba13102111 1
BillingFact d436f322-a9f4-4aad-9a7d-271fbf66001c 1
Operation 63613592-b6f7-4c3d-a390-22ba13102111 7
Operation d436f322-a9f4-4aad-9a7d-271fbf66001c 5
The latter approach becomes exponentially more efficient as the number of objects and member properties increases.
Here is a performance comparison of three techniques for creating objects with 5 properties:
$tests = @{
'[ordered] into [pscustomobject] cast' = {
param([int] $iterations, [string[]] $props)
foreach ($i in 1..$iterations) {
$obj = [ordered]@{}
foreach ($prop in $props) {
$obj[$prop] = $i
}
[pscustomobject] $obj
}
}
'Add-Member' = {
param([int] $iterations, [string[]] $props)
foreach ($i in 1..$iterations) {
$obj = [psobject]::new()
foreach ($prop in $props) {
$obj | Add-Member -MemberType NoteProperty -Name $prop -Value $i
}
$obj
}
}
'PSObject.Properties.Add' = {
param([int] $iterations, [string[]] $props)
# this is how, behind the scenes, `Add-Member` attaches
# new properties to our PSObject.
# Worth having it here for performance comparison
foreach ($i in 1..$iterations) {
$obj = [psobject]::new()
foreach ($prop in $props) {
$obj.PSObject.Properties.Add(
[psnoteproperty]::new($prop, $i))
}
$obj
}
}
}
$properties = 'Prop1', 'Prop2', 'Prop3', 'Prop4', 'Prop5'
1kb, 10kb, 100kb | ForEach-Object {
$groupResult = foreach ($test in $tests.GetEnumerator()) {
$ms = Measure-Command { & $test.Value -iterations $_ -props $properties }
[pscustomobject]@{
Iterations = $_
Test = $test.Key
TotalMilliseconds = [math]::Round($ms.TotalMilliseconds, 2)
}
[GC]::Collect()
[GC]::WaitForPendingFinalizers()
}
$groupResult = $groupResult | Sort-Object TotalMilliseconds
$groupResult | Select-Object *, @{
Name = 'RelativeSpeed'
Expression = {
$relativeSpeed = $_.TotalMilliseconds / $groupResult[0].TotalMilliseconds
[math]::Round($relativeSpeed, 2).ToString() + 'x'
}
}
}
And these are the results:
Iterations Test TotalMilliseconds RelativeSpeed
---------- ---- ----------------- -------------
1024 [ordered] into [pscustomobject] cast 22.00 1x
1024 PSObject.Properties.Add 153.17 6.96x
1024 Add-Member 261.96 11.91x
10240 [ordered] into [pscustomobject] cast 65.24 1x
10240 PSObject.Properties.Add 1293.07 19.82x
10240 Add-Member 2203.03 33.77x
102400 [ordered] into [pscustomobject] cast 639.83 1x
102400 PSObject.Properties.Add 13914.67 21.75x
102400 Add-Member 23496.08 36.72x
Related links
Feedback
Coming soon: Throughout 2024 we will be phasing out GitHub Issues as the feedback mechanism for content and replacing it with a new feedback system. For more information see: https://aka.ms/ContentUserFeedback.
Submit and view feedback for