using Declaration
The using declaration introduces a name into the declarative region in which the using declaration appears.
using [typename][::] nested-name-specifier unqualified-id
using :: unqualified-id
Remarks
The name becomes a synonym for an entity declared elsewhere. It allows an individual name from a specific namespace to be used without explicit qualification. This is in contrast to the using directive, which allows all the names in a namespace to be used without qualification. See using Directive for more information.
Example
A using declaration can be used in a class definition.
// using_declaration1.cpp
#include <stdio.h>
class B {
public:
void f(char) {
printf_s("In B::f()\n");
}
void g(char) {
printf_s("In B::g()\n");
}
};
class D : B {
public:
using B::f;
using B::g;
void f(int) {
printf_s("In D::f()\n");
f('c');
}
void g(int) {
printf_s("In D::g()\n");
g('c');
}
};
int main() {
D myD;
myD.f(1);
myD.g('a');
}
Output
In D::f() In B::f() In B::g()
When used to declare a member, a using declaration must refer to a member of a base class.
// using_declaration2.cpp
#include <stdio.h>
class B {
public:
void f(char) {
printf_s("In B::f()\n");
}
void g(char) {
printf_s("In B::g()\n");
}
};
class C {
public:
int g();
};
class D2 : public B {
public:
using B::f; // ok: B is a base of D2
// using C::g; // error: C isn't a base of D2
};
int main() {
D2 MyD2;
MyD2.f('a');
}
Output
In B::f()
Members declared with a using declaration can be referenced using explicit qualification. The :: prefix refers to the global namespace.
// using_declaration3.cpp
#include <stdio.h>
void f() {
printf_s("In f\n");
}
namespace A {
void g() {
printf_s("In A::g\n");
}
}
namespace X {
using ::f; // global f
using A::g; // A's g
}
void h() {
printf_s("In h\n");
X::f(); // calls ::f
X::g(); // calls A::g
}
int main() {
h();
}
Output
In h In f In A::g
When a using declaration is made, the synonym created by the declaration refers only to definitions that are valid at the point of the using declaration. Definitions added to a namespace after the using declaration are not valid synonyms.
A name defined by a using declaration is an alias for its original name. It does not affect the type, linkage or other attributes of the original declaration.
// post_declaration_namespace_additions.cpp
// compile with: /c
namespace A {
void f(int) {}
}
using A::f; // f is a synonym for A::f(int) only
namespace A {
void f(char) {}
}
void f() {
f('a'); // refers to A::f(int), even though A::f(char) exists
}
void b() {
using A::f; // refers to A::f(int) AND A::f(char)
f('a'); // calls A::f(char);
}
With respect to functions in namespaces, if a set of local declarations and using declarations for a single name are given in a declarative region, they must all refer to the same entity, or they must all refer to functions.
// functions_in_namespaces1.cpp
// C2874 expected
namespace B {
int i;
void f(int);
void f(double);
}
void g() {
int i;
using B::i; // error: i declared twice
void f(char);
using B::f; // ok: each f is a function
}
In the example above, the using B::i statement causes a second int i to be declared in the g() function. The using B::f statement does not conflict with the f(char) function because the function names introduced by B::f have different parameter types.
A local function declaration cannot have the same name and type as a function introduced by using declaration. For example:
// functions_in_namespaces2.cpp
// C2668 expected
namespace B {
void f(int);
void f(double);
}
namespace C {
void f(int);
void f(double);
void f(char);
}
void h() {
using B::f; // introduces B::f(int) and B::f(double)
using C::f; // C::f(int), C::f(double), and C::f(char)
f('h'); // calls C::f(char)
f(1); // C2668 ambiguous: B::f(int) or C::f(int)?
void f(int); // C2883 conflicts with B::f(int) and C::f(int)
}
With respect to inheritance, when a using declaration introduces a name from a base class into a derived class scope, member functions in the derived class override virtual member functions with the same name and argument types in the base class.
// using_declaration_inheritance1.cpp
#include <stdio.h>
struct B {
virtual void f(int) {
printf_s("In B::f(int)\n");
}
virtual void f(char) {
printf_s("In B::f(char)\n");
}
void g(int) {
printf_s("In B::g\n");
}
void h(int);
};
struct D : B {
using B::f;
void f(int) { // ok: D::f(int) overrides B::f(int)
printf_s("In D::f(int)\n");
}
using B::g;
void g(char) { // ok: there is no B::g(char)
printf_s("In D::g(char)\n");
}
using B::h;
void h(int) {} // Note: D::h(int) hides non-virtual B::h(int)
};
void f(D* pd) {
pd->f(1); // calls D::f(int)
pd->f('a'); // calls B::f(char)
pd->g(1); // calls B::g(int)
pd->g('a'); // calls D::g(char)
}
int main() {
D * myd = new D();
f(myd);
}
Output
In D::f(int) In B::f(char) In B::g In D::g(char)
All instances of a name mentioned in a using declaration must be accessible. In particular, if a derived class uses a using declaration to access a member of a base class, the member name must be accessible. If the name is that of an overloaded member function, then all functions named must be accessible.
See Member-Access Control, for more information on accessibility of members.
// using_declaration_inheritance2.cpp
// C2876 expected
class A {
private:
void f(char);
public:
void f(int);
protected:
void g();
};
class B : public A {
using A::f; // C2876: A::f(char) is inaccessible
public:
using A::g; // B::g is a public synonym for A::g
};