DNSSEC resource records are used to validate and secure DNS responses. DNS zones are secured with DNSSEC via zone signing. Signing a zone adds validation support without changing the basic mechanism of a DNS query and response. For an introduction of DNSSEC for DNS Server in Windows Server, see Overview of DNSSEC.
Digital signatures are included with DNS responses to provide validation. These digital signatures are contained in DNSSEC-related resource records that are generated and added to the zone during zone signing.
Recursive DNS
When a DNSSEC-aware recursive or forwarding DNS server receives a query from a DNS client for a DNSSEC-signed zone, it requests the authoritative DNS server to also send DNSSEC records to validate the DNS response. A recursive or forwarding DNS server recognizes that the zone supports DNSSEC if it has a DNSKEY, also called a trust anchor, for that zone.
Important
A non-authoritative DNS server might use recursion or forwarding to resolve a DNS query. This topic refers to the non-authoritative server as a recursive DNS server; if the server uses forwarding, the process used for DNSSEC validation of DNS responses is the same.
DNSKEY
A recursive DNS server uses the DNSKEY resource record to validate responses from the authoritative DNS server. To validate responses, the DNS server decrypts the digital signatures contained in DNSSEC-related resource records and compares the hash values. If hash values are identical, it provides a reply to the DNS client with the DNS data that it requested, such as a host (A) resource record. If hash values don't match, it replies with a SERVFAIL message. In this way, a DNSSEC-capable, resolving DNS server with a valid trust anchor installed protects against DNS spoofing attacks whether or not DNS clients are DNSSEC-aware.
If your DNS client is DNSSEC-aware, it can be configured to require that the DNS server perform DNSSEC validation.
The following figure shows the validation process.
DNSKEYs are used to compute hash values and decrypt RRSIG records. The figure doesn't display all validation processes that are performed. More validation is also carried out to ensure the DNSKEYs are valid and that DS records are valid, if they exist (not shown in the screenshot).
DNS query and response process
A simple example illustrates how you can incorporate DNSSEC into the DNS query-and-response process to provide validation.
In the following example, a DNS client computer queries a recursive (caching) DNS server, which in turn queries authoritative DNS servers before returning a response. This example assumes that DNS data isn't yet cached on the client or server. DNSSEC data validates DNS responses as genuine only when a zone is signed, and you're using DNSSEC-aware servers and clients.
The following figure shows the recursive DNS query process.
The following table shows the steps in a DNS query and response with optional DNSSEC data.
| Step | Query-response | Optional DNSSEC data |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | A DNS client sends a DNS query to a recursive DNS server. | The DNS client can indicate that it's DNSSEC-aware (DO=1). |
| 2 | The recursive DNS server sends a DNS query to the root and top-level domain (TLD) DNS servers. | The recursive DNS server can indicate that it's DNSSEC-aware (DO=1). |
| 3 | The root and TLD servers return a DNS response to the recursive DNS server providing the IP address of the authoritative DNS server for the zone. | Authoritative servers for the parent zone can indicate that the child zone is signed using DNSSEC and includes a secure delegation (DS record). |
| 4 | The recursive DNS server sends a DNS query to the authoritative DNS server for the zone. | The recursive DNS server can indicate that it's DNSSEC-aware (DO=1) and capable of validating signed resource records (CD=1) to be sent in the response. |
| 5 | The authoritative DNS server returns a DNS response to the recursive DNS server, providing the resource record data. | The authoritative DNS server can include DNSSEC signatures in the form of RRSIG records in the DNS response, for use in validation. |
| 6 | The recursive DNS server returns a DNS response to the DNS client, providing the resource record data. | The recursive DNS server can indicate whether or not the DNS response was validated (AD=1) using DNSSEC. |
Including DNSSEC data
DNSSEC-related flags (bits) are used in a DNS query and response to determine if DNSSEC data is included, and validation was performed. These flags are set by turning on or turning off extended data bits in the DNS packet header. When these flags are turned on, it's referred to as "setting" the bit (value is set to 1). Turning off a flag is referred to as "clearing" the bit (value is set to 0).
- DO: The DO bit is included in a DNS query and is an abbreviation for "DNSSEC OK". If the DO bit is set (
DO=1), then the client is DNSSEC-aware, and it's safe for the DNS server to return DNSSEC data in a response. If the DO bit isn't set (DO=0), then the client isn't DNSSEC-aware, and the DNS server can't include any DNSSEC data in a DNS response. DNS clients can still be protected using DNSSEC even if they're not DNSSEC-aware. In this context, a DNS client is any computer that sends a DNS query. When a recursive DNS server sends a query to the authoritative DNS server, the recursive DNS server must indicate that it's DNSSEC-aware so that the authoritative DNS server sends DNSSEC data in the response. - AD: The AD bit is included in a DNS response and is an abbreviation for "authenticated data". If the AD bit is set (
AD=1), then it means the DNS response is authentic because it was validated using DNSSEC. A nonvalidating DNSSEC-aware computer, such as one running Windows 8, doesn't perform DNSSEC validation but can be configured to require that DNS responses are authentic. If the AD bit isn't set (AD=0), the DNS response wasn't validated. The AD bit might not be set either because validation wasn't attempted, or because validation failed. - CD: The CD bit is included in a DNS query and is an abbreviation for "checking disabled". If the CD bit is set (
CD=1) in a query, then it means a DNS response should be sent whether or not validation was successfully performed. If the CD bit isn't set (CD=0), then a DNS response isn't sent if validation was required and failed. If the CD bit is clear (CD=0), this means "checking enabled" and DNSSEC validation can occur. The CD bit might be set (CD=1) in a query because the host is capable of performing DNSSEC validation, and doesn't require upstream validation, such as a recursive DNS server running Windows Server 2012 or later. A nonvalidating stub resolver, such as a computer running Windows DNS client issues queries with the CD bit clearedCD=0. For more information, see RFC4035, section 3.2.2.
A fourth important flag (bit) that can be present in a DNS packet header is the AA bit. This flag isn't new with DNSSEC, but it can be used when DNSSEC is deployed:
- AA: The AA bit is included in a DNS response and is an abbreviation for "authoritative answer". If the AA bit is set, it means that the DNS response is authentic because it came directly from an authoritative DNS server. A client that requires DNSSEC validation (
AD=1) accepts the AA bit instead (AA=1,AD=0). If the client directly queries an authoritative server because authoritative responses don't need to be validated. It would be redundant for an authoritative server to validate its own response.
Example DNS queries
The following examples display DNS query results that are performed from a DNS client computer running Windows 8.1 using the Resolve-DnsName cmdlet. The Resolve-DnsName cmdlet was introduced in Windows Server 2012 and Windows 8 and can be used to display DNS queries that include DNSSEC data.
Important
Do not use the nslookup.exe command-line tool to test DNSSEC support for a zone. The nslookup.exe tool uses an internal DNS client that isn't DNSSEC-aware.
Example 1: In the following example, a query is sent to a recursive DNS server for an address (A) record in the signed zone secure.contoso.com with DO=0.
Resolve-DnsName finance.secure.contoso.com –type A -server dns1.contoso.com
Name Type TTL Section IPAddress
---- ---- --- ------- ---------
finance.secure.contoso.com A 2848 Answer 192.168.0.200
The DO bit isn't set because the dnssecok parameter wasn't included.
Example 2: In the following example, the DO=1 flag is set by adding the dnssecok parameter.
Resolve-DnsName -name finance.secure.contoso.com -type A -server dns1.contoso.com -dnssecok
Name Type TTL Section IPAddress
---- ---- --- ------- ---------
finance.secure.contoso.com A 2848 Answer 192.168.0.200
Name : finance.secure.contoso.com
QueryType : RRSIG
TTL : 2848
Section : Answer
TypeCovered : A
Algorithm : 8
LabelCount : 4
OriginalTtl : 3600
Expiration : 10/18/2013 8:23:41 PM
Signed : 10/8/2013 7:23:41 PM
Signer : secure.contoso.com
Signature : {86, 229, 217, 39...}
Name : .
QueryType : OPT
TTL : 32768
Section : Additional
Data : {}
When DO=0, the DNS server doesn't send DNSSEC data in the DNS reply. When DO=1, the client indicates that it's able to receive DNSSEC data if available. Because the secure.contoso.com zone is signed, an RRSIG resource record was included with the DNS response when DO=1.
In both example 1 and example 2, validation isn't required for the secure.contoso.com zone because the Name Resolution Policy Table (NRPT) isn't configured to require validation.
You can use the Get-DnsClientNrptPolicy cmdlet to view current NRPT rules. For more information, see Get-DnsClientNrptPolicy.
Example 3: In the following example, an NRPT rule is displayed for secure.contoso.com.
Get-DnsClientNrptPolicy
Namespace : .secure.contoso.com
QueryPolicy :
SecureNameQueryFallback :
DirectAccessIPsecCARestriction :
DirectAccessProxyName :
DirectAccessDnsServers :
DirectAccessEnabled :
DirectAccessProxyType : NoProxy
DirectAccessQueryIPsecEncryption :
DirectAccessQueryIPsecRequired : False
NameServers :
DnsSecIPsecCARestriction :
DnsSecQueryIPsecEncryption :
DnsSecQueryIPsecRequired : False
DnsSecValidationRequired : False
NameEncoding : Utf8WithoutMapping
In this example, the value for DnsSecValidationRequired is False. When the value is false, DNSSEC validation isn't required.
Example 4: With DNSSEC validation enabled for secure.contoso.com, the NRPT displays True for DnsSecValidationRequired. This example only displays the secure.contoso.com namespace, and the DnsSecValidationRequired parameter.
(Get-DnsClientNrptPolicy -NameSpace secure.contoso.com).DnsSecValidationRequired
True
If the value of DnsSecValidationRequired is True , then DNSSEC-aware client computers always send queries with DO=1, even if the dnssecok parameter isn't included.
Example 5: When DNSSEC validation is required in the Name Resolution Policy Table (NRPT), the DNSSEC OK bit is automatically set (DO=1) for DNSSEC-aware clients.
Resolve-DnsName -name finance.secure.contoso.com -type A -server dns1.contoso.com
Name Type TTL Section IPAddress
---- ---- --- ------- ---------
finance.secure.contoso.com A 2848 Answer 192.168.0.200
Name : finance.secure.contoso.com
QueryType : RRSIG
TTL : 2848
Section : Answer
TypeCovered : A
Algorithm : 8
LabelCount : 4
OriginalTtl : 3600
Expiration : 10/18/2013 8:23:41 PM
Signed : 10/8/2013 7:23:41 PM
Signer : secure.contoso.com
Signature : {86, 229, 217, 39...}
Name : .
QueryType : OPT
TTL : 32768
Section : Additional
Data : {}
In this example, an RRSIG record is sent in the DNS response in order to fulfill the validation requirements for secure.contoso.com. A valid trust anchor is also configured on the recursive DNS server dns1.contoso.com.
If a DNS client isn't DNSSEC-aware, the NRPT rule doesn't apply, and queries are sent with DO=0, even if an NRPT rule exists that requires DNSSEC validation.
Example 6: In the following example, the same query is performed as in example 5, but without a valid trust anchor configured on dns1.contoso.com.
Resolve-DnsName -name finance.secure.contoso.com -type A -server dns1.contoso.com
Resolve-DnsName : finance.secure.contoso.com : Unsecured DNS packet
At line:1 char:1
+ Resolve-DnsName -name finance.secure.contoso.com -type A -server dns1.contoso.co ...
+ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+ CategoryInfo : ResourceUnavailable: (finance.secure.contoso.com:String) [Resolve-DnsName], Win32Excepti
on
+ FullyQualifiedErrorId : DNS\_ERROR\_UNSECURE\_PACKET,Microsoft.DnsClient.Commands.ResolveDnsName
In this example, DNS resolution fails with the message DNS_ERROR_UNSECURE_PACKET. Resolution fails because validation is required in the NRPT but can't be performed due to the lack of a valid trust anchor for the zone secure.contoso.com. The Resolve-DnsName cmdlet reports detailed results for the type of failure encountered. If the DNS client attempts to resolve finance.secure.contoso.com in order to connect to this host, it fails.
DNSSEC scenarios
DNSSEC can be deployed in many different environments with unique server and client settings, it's important to understand how DNS queries and responses are affected.
Consider the following four DNSSEC-related statements. Each statement affects how DNSSEC works in a given scenario:
- The
finance.secure.contoso.comresource record is correctly signed with DNSSEC. - A recursive DNS server is capable of validating responses to a query for
finance.secure.contoso.com. - A DNS client is DNSSEC-aware.
- A DNS client is configured to require validation for all queries in the
secure.contoso.comnamespace.
Let's consider each of these four statements in more detail.
DNSSEC signing status: DNSSEC signs all records in the zone, this condition refers to the state of the
secure.contoso.comzone, not just thefinance.secure.contoso.comresource record. You can't sign some records and not sign other records. Therefore, the DNSSEC status offinance.secure.contoso.comdepends on the DNSSEC status ofsecure.contoso.com.Signed correctly: The
secure.contoso.comzone can be signed in a valid manner, which enablesfinance.secure.contoso.comto be validated as genuine. To be valid, the zone must be signed with valid, unexpired keys, and all required DNSSEC-related resource records must be present.Not signed: The
secure.contoso.comzone might not be signed, in which case there's no RRSIG record associated withfinance.secure.contoso.com, and DNS responses to queries forfinance.secure.contoso.comcan't be validated. If a client requires validation, then a DNS query that's sent to a recursive DNS server fails because the DNS client doesn't accept a nonvalidated response. If a client directly queries an authoritative server, it doesn't fail validation because the response is already considered authentic.Not signed correctly: The
secure.contoso.comzone might be signed, but not in a valid manner. For example, one or more DNSSEC signing keys might be expired. After you initially sign a zone, the zone must periodically be re-signed with new keys before the signing key validity period expires, in order to maintain a secure DNSSEC operational status. The validity period for DNSSEC signing keys should be short enough to maintain security, but long enough to enable easy administration. DNSSEC in Windows Server 2012 and Windows Server 2012 R2 supports automatic key rollover, providing both security and ease of administration for your DNSSEC-signed zones.
Validation status: A recursive DNS server with a valid trust anchor (public cryptographic key) for the
secure.contoso.comzone is capable of validating a DNS response for thefinance.secure.contoso.comresource record. A recursive DNS server must also support the DNSSEC standards and algorithms that are used to sign the zone.Can validate: If the recursive DNS server supports all cryptographic algorithms used to sign the
secure.contoso.comzone, and it has a valid trust anchor that it can use to decrypt the DNSSEC signature that is associated with the signed resource record, then it can validate thefinance.secure.contoso.comresource record as genuine.Cannot validate: A non-DNSSEC aware DNS server isn't capable of validation. Similarly, a DNS server that doesn't currently have a valid trust anchor for the zone
secure.contoso.com, it isn't capable of validating a DNS response forfinance.secure.contoso.com. Trust anchors must be updated when a zone is re-signed, for example, during key rollover. DNSSEC in Windows Server 2012 and Windows Server 2012 R2 supports automatic update of trust anchors on key rollover per RFC 5011, "Automated Updates of DNS Security (DNSSEC) Trust Anchors."
DNSSEC-aware status: The DNSSEC-aware status of a DNS client depends on the operating system that it's running. The Windows DNS Client service in Windows 7 or Windows Server 2008 R2 and later operating systems are DNSSEC-aware, nonvalidating stub resolvers. Previous Windows operating systems are non-DNSSEC-aware. The DNS client informs a DNS server whether or not it's DNSSEC-aware when it sends a DNS query.
Both client and server are DNSSEC-aware: If both the client and the server are DNSSEC-aware, then the DNS response from the server to the client includes the DNSSEC authenticated data (AD) flag. If the DNS response is validated with DNSSEC, then
AD=1is sent. If the DNS response wasn't validated, thenAD=0is sent.The DNS server is not DNSSEC-aware: If the DNS server isn't DNSSEC-aware, then no validation is performed, and the AD flag isn't set (
AD=0) regardless of whether or not the DNS client is DNSSEC-aware.The DNS client is not DNSSEC-aware: If the DNS client isn't DNSSEC-aware, the DNS server doesn't set the AD flag in its response to the client even if it understands DNSSEC. However, if the DNS server is DNSSEC-aware and it has a trust anchor for the zone, the server attempts to validate the response from the authoritative server. If the validation fails, it returns a DNS server failure to the DNS client. If the validation succeeds, it returns the query results to the client. In this way, a DNSSEC-aware recursive DNS server can protect non-DNSSEC-aware DNS clients. In this scenario, if the zone isn't signed, no validation is attempted and the response is returned normally to the client.
Validation requirement: This setting determines the requirement of a DNSSEC-aware DNS client for DNSSEC data (the AD flag) in a response from a DNS server. In order for the DNS client to require validation, it must be DNSSEC-aware. Non-DNSSEC-aware DNS clients can't be forced to require DNSSEC validation. If the DNS client is directly querying an authoritative DNS server, the response is validated, even if the zone isn't signed. This is because authoritative DNS servers always return authentic responses.
Validation is required: If validation is required, the client must receive
AD=1(validation successful) or it rejects the DNS response. If validation was unsuccessful or not attempted (AD=0), then DNS resolution fails. This is true even if the zone isn't signed. This only applies to queries against a recursive, nonauthoritative DNS server.Validation isn't required: If validation isn't required, the client accepts a response from a non-DNSSEC-aware recursive DNS server. However, if the recursive DNS server is DNSSEC-aware and validation fails, it returns a server failover to the client even if the client doesn't require validation.
Next steps
Here are some articles to learn more about DNSSEC for DNS Server.