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Timing vulnerabilities with CBC-mode symmetric decryption using padding

  • Raksts

Microsoft believes that it's no longer safe to decrypt data encrypted with the Cipher-Block-Chaining (CBC) mode of symmetric encryption when verifiable padding has been applied without first ensuring the integrity of the ciphertext, except for very specific circumstances. This judgement is based on currently known cryptographic research.

Introduction

A padding oracle attack is a type of attack against encrypted data that allows the attacker to decrypt the contents of the data, without knowing the key.

An oracle refers to a "tell" which gives an attacker information about whether the action they're executing is correct or not. Imagine playing a board or card game with a child. When their face lights up with a big smile because they think they're about to make a good move, that's an oracle. You, as the opponent, can use this oracle to plan your next move appropriately.

Padding is a specific cryptographic term. Some ciphers, which are the algorithms used to encrypt your data, work on blocks of data where each block is a fixed size. If the data you want to encrypt isn't the right size to fill the blocks, your data is padded until it does. Many forms of padding require that padding to always be present, even if the original input was of the right size. This allows the padding to always be safely removed upon decryption.

Putting the two things together, a software implementation with a padding oracle reveals whether decrypted data has valid padding. The oracle could be something as simple as returning a value that says "Invalid padding" or something more complicated like taking a measurably different time to process a valid block as opposed to an invalid block.

Block-based ciphers have another property, called the mode, which determines the relationship of data in the first block to the data in the second block, and so on. One of the most commonly used modes is CBC. CBC introduces an initial random block, known as the Initialization Vector (IV), and combines the previous block with the result of static encryption to make it such that encrypting the same message with the same key doesn't always produce the same encrypted output.

An attacker can use a padding oracle, in combination with how CBC data is structured, to send slightly changed messages to the code that exposes the oracle, and keep sending data until the oracle tells them the data is correct. From this response, the attacker can decrypt the message byte by byte.

Modern computer networks are of such high quality that an attacker can detect very small (less than 0.1 ms) differences in execution time on remote systems. Applications that are assuming that a successful decryption can only happen when the data wasn't tampered with may be vulnerable to attack from tools that are designed to observe differences in successful and unsuccessful decryption. While this timing difference may be more significant in some languages or libraries than others, it's now believed that this is a practical threat for all languages and libraries when the application's response to failure is taken into account.

This attack relies on the ability to change the encrypted data and test the result with the oracle. The only way to fully mitigate the attack is to detect changes to the encrypted data and refuse to perform any actions on it. The standard way to do this is to create a signature for the data and validate that signature before any operations are performed. The signature must be verifiable, it cannot be created by the attacker, otherwise they'd change the encrypted data, then compute a new signature based on the changed data. One common type of appropriate signature is known as a keyed-hash message authentication code (HMAC). An HMAC differs from a checksum in that it takes a secret key, known only to the person producing the HMAC and to the person validating it. Without possession of the key, you can't produce a correct HMAC. When you receive your data, you'd take the encrypted data, independently compute the HMAC using the secret key you and the sender share, then compare the HMAC they sent against the one you computed. This comparison must be constant time, otherwise you've added another detectable oracle, allowing a different type of attack.

In summary, to use padded CBC block ciphers safely, you must combine them with an HMAC (or another data integrity check) that you validate using a constant time comparison before trying to decrypt the data. Since all altered messages take the same amount time to produce a response, the attack is prevented.

Who is vulnerable

This vulnerability applies to both managed and native applications that are performing their own encryption and decryption. This includes, for example:

  • An application that encrypts a cookie for later decryption on the server.
  • A database application that provides the ability for users to insert data into a table whose columns are later decrypted.
  • A data transfer application that relies on encryption using a shared key to protect the data in transit.
  • An application that encrypts and decrypts messages "inside" the TLS tunnel.

Note that using TLS alone may not protect you in these scenarios.

A vulnerable application:

  • Decrypts data using the CBC cipher mode with a verifiable padding mode, such as PKCS#7 or ANSI X.923.
  • Performs the decryption without having performed a data integrity check (via a MAC or an asymmetric digital signature).

This also applies to applications built on top of abstractions over top of these primitives, such as the Cryptographic Message Syntax (PKCS#7/CMS) EnvelopedData structure.

Research has led Microsoft to be further concerned about CBC messages that are padded with ISO 10126-equivalent padding when the message has a well-known or predictable footer structure. For example, content prepared under the rules of the W3C XML Encryption Syntax and Processing Recommendation (xmlenc, EncryptedXml). While the W3C guidance to sign the message then encrypt was considered appropriate at the time, Microsoft now recommends always doing encrypt-then-sign.

Application developers should always be mindful of verifying the applicability of an asymmetric signature key, as there's no inherent trust relationship between an asymmetric key and an arbitrary message.

Details

Historically, there has been consensus that it's important to both encrypt and authenticate important data, using means such as HMAC or RSA signatures. However, there has been less clear guidance as to how to sequence the encryption and authentication operations. Due to the vulnerability detailed in this article, Microsoft's guidance is now to always use the "encrypt-then-sign" paradigm. That is, first encrypt data using a symmetric key, then compute a MAC or asymmetric signature over the ciphertext (encrypted data). When decrypting data, perform the reverse. First, confirm the MAC or signature of the ciphertext, then decrypt it.

A class of vulnerabilities known as "padding oracle attacks" have been known to exist for over 10 years. These vulnerabilities allow an attacker to decrypt data encrypted by symmetric block algorithms, such as AES and 3DES, using no more than 4096 attempts per block of data. These vulnerabilities make use of the fact that block ciphers are most frequently used with verifiable padding data at the end. It was found that if an attacker can tamper with ciphertext and find out whether the tampering caused an error in the format of the padding at the end, the attacker can decrypt the data.

Initially, practical attacks were based on services that would return different error codes based on whether padding was valid, such as the ASP.NET vulnerability MS10-070. However, Microsoft now believes that it's practical to conduct similar attacks using only the differences in timing between processing valid and invalid padding.

Provided that the encryption scheme employs a signature and that the signature verification is performed with a fixed runtime for a given length of data (irrespective of the contents), the data integrity can be verified without emitting any information to an attacker via a side channel. Since the integrity check rejects any tampered messages, the padding oracle threat is mitigated.

Guidance

First and foremost, Microsoft recommends that any data that has confidentiality needs be transmitted over Transport Layer Security (TLS), the successor to Secure Sockets Layer (SSL).

Next, analyze your application to:

  • Understand precisely what encryption you're performing and what encryption is being provided by the platforms and APIs you're using.
  • Be certain that each usage at each layer of a symmetric block cipher algorithm, such as AES and 3DES, in CBC mode incorporate the use of a secret-keyed data integrity check (an asymmetric signature, an HMAC, or to change the cipher mode to an authenticated encryption (AE) mode such as GCM or CCM).

Based on the current research, it's generally believed that when the authentication and encryption steps are performed independently for non-AE modes of encryption, authenticating the ciphertext (encrypt-then-sign) is the best general option. However, there's no one-size-fits-all correct answer to cryptography and this generalization isn't as good as directed advice from a professional cryptographer.

Applications that are unable to change their messaging format but perform unauthenticated CBC decryption are encouraged to try to incorporate mitigations such as:

  • Decrypt without allowing the decryptor to verify or remove padding:
    • Any padding that was applied still needs to be removed or ignored, you're moving the burden into your application.
    • The benefit is that the padding verification and removal can be incorporated into other application data verification logic. If the padding verification and data verification can be done in constant time, the threat is reduced.
    • Since the interpretation of the padding changes the perceived message length, there may still be timing information emitted from this approach.
  • Change the decryption padding mode to ISO10126:
    • ISO10126 decryption padding is compatible with both PKCS7 encryption padding and ANSIX923 encryption padding.
    • Changing the mode reduces the padding oracle knowledge to 1 byte instead of the entire block. However, if the content has a well-known footer, such as a closing XML element, related attacks can continue to attack the rest of the message.
    • This also doesn't prevent plaintext recovery in situations where the attacker can coerce the same plaintext to be encrypted multiple times with a different message offset.
  • Gate the evaluation of a decryption call to dampen the timing signal:
    • The computation of hold time must have a minimum in excess of the maximum amount of time the decryption operation would take for any data segment that contains padding.
    • Time computations should be done according to the guidance in Acquiring high-resolution time stamps, not by using Environment.TickCount (subject to roll-over/overflow) or subtracting two system timestamps (subject to NTP adjustment errors).
    • Time computations must be inclusive of the decryption operation including all potential exceptions in managed or C++ applications, not just padded onto the end.
    • If success or failure has been determined yet, the timing gate needs to return failure when it expires.
  • Services that are performing unauthenticated decryption should have monitoring in place to detect that a flood of "invalid" messages has come through.
    • Bear in mind that this signal carries both false positives (legitimately corrupted data) and false negatives (spreading out the attack over a sufficiently long time to evade detection).

Finding vulnerable code - native applications

For programs built against the Windows Cryptography: Next Generation (CNG) library:

  • The decryption call is to BCryptDecrypt, specifying the BCRYPT_BLOCK_PADDING flag.
  • The key handle has been initialized by calling BCryptSetProperty with BCRYPT_CHAINING_MODE set to BCRYPT_CHAIN_MODE_CBC.
    • Since BCRYPT_CHAIN_MODE_CBC is the default, affected code may not have assigned any value for BCRYPT_CHAINING_MODE.

For programs built against the older Windows Cryptographic API:

  • The decryption call is to CryptDecrypt with Final=TRUE.
  • The key handle has been initialized by calling CryptSetKeyParam with KP_MODE set to CRYPT_MODE_CBC.
    • Since CRYPT_MODE_CBC is the default, affected code may not have assigned any value for KP_MODE.

Finding vulnerable code - managed applications

Finding vulnerable code - cryptographic message syntax

An unauthenticated CMS EnvelopedData message whose encrypted content uses the CBC mode of AES (2.16.840.1.101.3.4.1.2, 2.16.840.1.101.3.4.1.22, 2.16.840.1.101.3.4.1.42), DES (1.3.14.3.2.7), 3DES (1.2.840.113549.3.7) or RC2 (1.2.840.113549.3.2) is vulnerable, as well as messages using any other block cipher algorithms in CBC mode.

While stream ciphers aren't susceptible to this particular vulnerability, Microsoft recommends always authenticating the data over inspecting the ContentEncryptionAlgorithm value.

For managed applications, a CMS EnvelopedData blob can be detected as any value that is passed to System.Security.Cryptography.Pkcs.EnvelopedCms.Decode(Byte[]).

For native applications, a CMS EnvelopedData blob can be detected as any value provided to a CMS handle via CryptMsgUpdate whose resulting CMSG_TYPE_PARAM is CMSG_ENVELOPED and/or the CMS handle is later sent a CMSG_CTRL_DECRYPT instruction via CryptMsgControl.

Vulnerable code example - managed

This method reads a cookie and decrypts it and no data integrity check is visible. Therefore, the contents of a cookie that is read by this method can be attacked by the user who received it, or by any attacker who has obtained the encrypted cookie value.

private byte[] DecryptCookie(string cookieName)
{
    HttpCookie cookie = Request.Cookies[cookieName];

    if (cookie == null)
    {
        return null;
    }

    using (ICryptoTransform decryptor = _aes.CreateDecryptor())
    using (MemoryStream memoryStream = new MemoryStream())
    using (CryptoStream cryptoStream =
        new CryptoStream(memoryStream, decryptor, CryptoStreamMode.Write))
    {
        byte[] readCookie = Convert.FromBase64String(cookie.Value);
        cryptoStream.Write(readCookie, 0, readCookie.Length);
        cryptoStream.FlushFinalBlock();
        return memoryStream.ToArray();
    }
}

Example code following recommended practices - managed

The following sample code uses a non-standard message format of

cipher_algorithm_id || hmac_algorithm_id || hmac_tag || iv || ciphertext

where the cipher_algorithm_id and hmac_algorithm_id algorithm identifiers are application-local (non-standard) representations of those algorithms. These identifiers may make sense in other parts of your existing messaging protocol instead of as a bare concatenated bytestream.

This example also uses a single master key to derive both an encryption key and an HMAC key. This is provided both as a convenience for turning a singly-keyed application into a dual-keyed application, and to encourage keeping the two keys as different values. It further guarantees that the HMAC key and encryption key can't get out of synchronization.

This sample doesn't accept a Stream for either encryption or decryption. The current data format makes one-pass encrypt difficult because the hmac_tag value precedes the ciphertext. However, this format was chosen because it keeps all of the fixed-size elements at the beginning to keep the parser simpler. With this data format, one-pass decrypt is possible, though an implementer is cautioned to call GetHashAndReset and verify the result before calling TransformFinalBlock. If streaming encryption is important, then a different AE mode may be required.

// ==++==
//
//   Copyright (c) Microsoft Corporation.  All rights reserved.
//
//   Shared under the terms of the Microsoft Public License,
//   https://opensource.org/licenses/MS-PL
//
// ==--==

using System;
using System.Diagnostics;
using System.IO;
using System.Runtime.CompilerServices;
using System.Security.Cryptography;

namespace Microsoft.Examples.Cryptography
{
    public enum AeCipher : byte
    {
        Unknown,
        Aes256CbcPkcs7,
    }

    public enum AeMac : byte
    {
        Unknown,
        HMACSHA256,
        HMACSHA384,
    }

    /// <summary>
    /// Provides extension methods to make HashAlgorithm look like .NET Core's
    /// IncrementalHash
    /// </summary>
    internal static class IncrementalHashExtensions
    {
        public static void AppendData(this HashAlgorithm hash, byte[] data)
        {
            hash.TransformBlock(data, 0, data.Length, null, 0);
        }

        public static void AppendData(
            this HashAlgorithm hash,
            byte[] data,
            int offset,
            int length)
        {
            hash.TransformBlock(data, offset, length, null, 0);
        }

        public static byte[] GetHashAndReset(this HashAlgorithm hash)
        {
            hash.TransformFinalBlock(Array.Empty<byte>(), 0, 0);
            return hash.Hash;
        }
    }

    public static partial class AuthenticatedEncryption
    {
        /// <summary>
        /// Use <paramref name="masterKey"/> to derive two keys (one cipher, one HMAC)
        /// to provide authenticated encryption for <paramref name="message"/>.
        /// </summary>
        /// <param name="masterKey">The master key from which other keys derive.</param>
        /// <param name="message">The message to encrypt</param>
        /// <returns>
        /// A concatenation of
        /// [cipher algorithm+chainmode+padding][mac algorithm][authtag][IV][ciphertext],
        /// suitable to be passed to <see cref="Decrypt"/>.
        /// </returns>
        /// <remarks>
        /// <paramref name="masterKey"/> should be a 128-bit (or bigger) value generated
        /// by a secure random number generator, such as the one returned from
        /// <see cref="RandomNumberGenerator.Create()"/>.
        /// This implementation chooses to block deficient inputs by length, but does not
        /// make any attempt at discerning the randomness of the key.
        ///
        /// If the master key is being input by a prompt (like a password/passphrase)
        /// then it should be properly turned into keying material via a Key Derivation
        /// Function like PBKDF2, represented by Rfc2898DeriveBytes. A 'password' should
        /// never be simply turned to bytes via an Encoding class and used as a key.
        /// </remarks>
        public static byte[] Encrypt(byte[] masterKey, byte[] message)
        {
            if (masterKey == null)
                throw new ArgumentNullException(nameof(masterKey));
            if (masterKey.Length < 16)
                throw new ArgumentOutOfRangeException(
                    nameof(masterKey),
                    "Master Key must be at least 128 bits (16 bytes)");
            if (message == null)
                throw new ArgumentNullException(nameof(message));

            // First, choose an encryption scheme.
            AeCipher aeCipher = AeCipher.Aes256CbcPkcs7;

            // Second, choose an authentication (message integrity) scheme.
            //
            // In this example we use the master key length to change from HMACSHA256 to
            // HMACSHA384, but that is completely arbitrary. This mostly represents a
            // "cryptographic needs change over time" scenario.
            AeMac aeMac = masterKey.Length < 48 ? AeMac.HMACSHA256 : AeMac.HMACSHA384;

            // It's good to be able to identify what choices were made when a message was
            // encrypted, so that the message can later be decrypted. This allows for
            // future versions to add support for new encryption schemes, but still be
            // able to read old data. A practice known as "cryptographic agility".
            //
            // This is similar in practice to PKCS#7 messaging, but this uses a
            // private-scoped byte rather than a public-scoped Object IDentifier (OID).
            // Please note that the scheme in this example adheres to no particular
            // standard, and is unlikely to survive to a more complete implementation in
            // the .NET Framework.
            //
            // You may be well-served by prepending a version number byte to this
            // message, but may want to avoid the value 0x30 (the leading byte value for
            // DER-encoded structures such as X.509 certificates and PKCS#7 messages).
            byte[] algorithmChoices = { (byte)aeCipher, (byte)aeMac };
            byte[] iv;
            byte[] cipherText;
            byte[] tag;

            // Using our algorithm choices, open an HMAC (as an authentication tag
            // generator) and a SymmetricAlgorithm which use different keys each derived
            // from the same master key.
            //
            // A custom implementation may very well have distinctly managed secret keys
            // for the MAC and cipher, this example merely demonstrates the master to
            // derived key methodology to encourage key separation from the MAC and
            // cipher keys.
            using (HMAC tagGenerator = GetMac(aeMac, masterKey))
            {
                using (SymmetricAlgorithm cipher = GetCipher(aeCipher, masterKey))
                using (ICryptoTransform encryptor = cipher.CreateEncryptor())
                {
                    // Since no IV was provided, a random one has been generated
                    // during the call to CreateEncryptor.
                    //
                    // But note that it only does the auto-generation once. If the cipher
                    // object were used again, a call to GenerateIV would have been
                    // required.
                    iv = cipher.IV;

                    cipherText = Transform(encryptor, message, 0, message.Length);
                }

                // The IV and ciphertext both need to be included in the MAC to prevent
                // tampering.
                //
                // By including the algorithm identifiers, we have technically moved from
                // simple Authenticated Encryption (AE) to Authenticated Encryption with
                // Additional Data (AEAD). By including the algorithm identifiers in the
                // MAC, it becomes harder for an attacker to change them as an attempt to
                // perform a downgrade attack.
                //
                // If you've added a data format version field, it can also be included
                // in the MAC to further inhibit an attacker's options for confusing the
                // data processor into believing the tampered message is valid.
                tagGenerator.AppendData(algorithmChoices);
                tagGenerator.AppendData(iv);
                tagGenerator.AppendData(cipherText);
                tag = tagGenerator.GetHashAndReset();
            }

            // Build the final result as the concatenation of everything except the keys.
            int totalLength =
                algorithmChoices.Length +
                tag.Length +
                iv.Length +
                cipherText.Length;

            byte[] output = new byte[totalLength];
            int outputOffset = 0;

            Append(algorithmChoices, output, ref outputOffset);
            Append(tag, output, ref outputOffset);
            Append(iv, output, ref outputOffset);
            Append(cipherText, output, ref outputOffset);

            Debug.Assert(outputOffset == output.Length);
            return output;
        }

        /// <summary>
        /// Reads a message produced by <see cref="Encrypt"/> after verifying it hasn't
        /// been tampered with.
        /// </summary>
        /// <param name="masterKey">The master key from which other keys derive.</param>
        /// <param name="cipherText">
        /// The output of <see cref="Encrypt"/>: a concatenation of a cipher ID, mac ID,
        /// authTag, IV, and cipherText.
        /// </param>
        /// <returns>The decrypted content.</returns>
        /// <exception cref="ArgumentNullException">
        /// <paramref name="masterKey"/> is <c>null</c>.
        /// </exception>
        /// <exception cref="ArgumentNullException">
        /// <paramref name="cipherText"/> is <c>null</c>.
        /// </exception>
        /// <exception cref="CryptographicException">
        /// <paramref name="cipherText"/> identifies unknown algorithms, is not long
        /// enough, fails a data integrity check, or fails to decrypt.
        /// </exception>
        /// <remarks>
        /// <paramref name="masterKey"/> should be a 128-bit (or larger) value
        /// generated by a secure random number generator, such as the one returned from
        /// <see cref="RandomNumberGenerator.Create()"/>. This implementation chooses to
        /// block deficient inputs by length, but doesn't make any attempt at
        /// discerning the randomness of the key.
        ///
        /// If the master key is being input by a prompt (like a password/passphrase),
        /// then it should be properly turned into keying material via a Key Derivation
        /// Function like PBKDF2, represented by Rfc2898DeriveBytes. A 'password' should
        /// never be simply turned to bytes via an Encoding class and used as a key.
        /// </remarks>
        public static byte[] Decrypt(byte[] masterKey, byte[] cipherText)
        {
            // This example continues the .NET practice of throwing exceptions for
            // failures. If you consider message tampering to be normal (and thus
            // "not exceptional") behavior, you may like the signature
            // bool Decrypt(byte[] messageKey, byte[] cipherText, out byte[] message)
            // better.
            if (masterKey == null)
                throw new ArgumentNullException(nameof(masterKey));
            if (masterKey.Length < 16)
                throw new ArgumentOutOfRangeException(
                    nameof(masterKey),
                    "Master Key must be at least 128 bits (16 bytes)");
            if (cipherText == null)
                throw new ArgumentNullException(nameof(cipherText));

            // The format of this message is assumed to be public, so there's no harm in
            // saying ahead of time that the message makes no sense.
            if (cipherText.Length < 2)
            {
                throw new CryptographicException();
            }

            // Use the message algorithm headers to determine what cipher algorithm and
            // MAC algorithm are going to be used. Since the same Key Derivation
            // Functions (KDFs) are being used in Decrypt as Encrypt, the keys are also
            // the same.
            AeCipher aeCipher = (AeCipher)cipherText[0];
            AeMac aeMac = (AeMac)cipherText[1];

            using (SymmetricAlgorithm cipher = GetCipher(aeCipher, masterKey))
            using (HMAC tagGenerator = GetMac(aeMac, masterKey))
            {
                int blockSizeInBytes = cipher.BlockSize / 8;
                int tagSizeInBytes = tagGenerator.HashSize / 8;
                int headerSizeInBytes = 2;
                int tagOffset = headerSizeInBytes;
                int ivOffset = tagOffset + tagSizeInBytes;
                int cipherTextOffset = ivOffset + blockSizeInBytes;
                int cipherTextLength = cipherText.Length - cipherTextOffset;
                int minLen = cipherTextOffset + blockSizeInBytes;

                // Again, the minimum length is still assumed to be public knowledge,
                // nothing has leaked out yet. The minimum length couldn't just be calculated
                // without reading the header.
                if (cipherText.Length < minLen)
                {
                    throw new CryptographicException();
                }

                // It's very important that the MAC be calculated and verified before
                // proceeding to decrypt the ciphertext, as this prevents any sort of
                // information leaking out to an attacker.
                //
                // Don't include the tag in the calculation, though.

                // First, everything before the tag (the cipher and MAC algorithm ids)
                tagGenerator.AppendData(cipherText, 0, tagOffset);

                // Skip the data before the tag and the tag, then read everything that
                // remains.
                tagGenerator.AppendData(
                    cipherText,
                    tagOffset + tagSizeInBytes,
                    cipherText.Length - tagSizeInBytes - tagOffset);

                byte[] generatedTag = tagGenerator.GetHashAndReset();

                // The time it took to get to this point has so far been a function only
                // of the length of the data, or of non-encrypted values (e.g. it could
                // take longer to prepare the *key* for the HMACSHA384 MAC than the
                // HMACSHA256 MAC, but the algorithm choice wasn't a secret).
                //
                // If the verification of the authentication tag aborts as soon as a
                // difference is found in the byte arrays then your program may be
                // acting as a timing oracle which helps an attacker to brute-force the
                // right answer for the MAC. So, it's very important that every possible
                // "no" (2^256-1 of them for HMACSHA256) be evaluated in as close to the
                // same amount of time as possible. For this, we call CryptographicEquals
                if (!CryptographicEquals(
                    generatedTag,
                    0,
                    cipherText,
                    tagOffset,
                    tagSizeInBytes))
                {
                    // Assuming every tampered message (of the same length) took the same
                    // amount of time to process, we can now safely say
                    // "this data makes no sense" without giving anything away.
                    throw new CryptographicException();
                }

                // Restore the IV into the symmetricAlgorithm instance.
                byte[] iv = new byte[blockSizeInBytes];
                Buffer.BlockCopy(cipherText, ivOffset, iv, 0, iv.Length);
                cipher.IV = iv;

                using (ICryptoTransform decryptor = cipher.CreateDecryptor())
                {
                    return Transform(
                        decryptor,
                        cipherText,
                        cipherTextOffset,
                        cipherTextLength);
                }
            }
        }

        private static byte[] Transform(
            ICryptoTransform transform,
            byte[] input,
            int inputOffset,
            int inputLength)
        {
            // Many of the implementations of ICryptoTransform report true for
            // CanTransformMultipleBlocks, and when the entire message is available in
            // one shot this saves on the allocation of the CryptoStream and the
            // intermediate structures it needs to properly chunk the message into blocks
            // (since the underlying stream won't always return the number of bytes
            // needed).
            if (transform.CanTransformMultipleBlocks)
            {
                return transform.TransformFinalBlock(input, inputOffset, inputLength);
            }

            // If our transform couldn't do multiple blocks at once, let CryptoStream
            // handle the chunking.
            using (MemoryStream messageStream = new MemoryStream())
            using (CryptoStream cryptoStream =
                new CryptoStream(messageStream, transform, CryptoStreamMode.Write))
            {
                cryptoStream.Write(input, inputOffset, inputLength);
                cryptoStream.FlushFinalBlock();
                return messageStream.ToArray();
            }
        }

        /// <summary>
        /// Open a properly configured <see cref="SymmetricAlgorithm"/> conforming to the
        /// scheme identified by <paramref name="aeCipher"/>.
        /// </summary>
        /// <param name="aeCipher">The cipher mode to open.</param>
        /// <param name="masterKey">The master key from which other keys derive.</param>
        /// <returns>
        /// A SymmetricAlgorithm object with the right key, cipher mode, and padding
        /// mode; or <c>null</c> on unknown algorithms.
        /// </returns>
        private static SymmetricAlgorithm GetCipher(AeCipher aeCipher, byte[] masterKey)
        {
            SymmetricAlgorithm symmetricAlgorithm;

            switch (aeCipher)
            {
                case AeCipher.Aes256CbcPkcs7:
                    symmetricAlgorithm = Aes.Create();
                    // While 256-bit, CBC, and PKCS7 are all the default values for these
                    // properties, being explicit helps comprehension more than it hurts
                    // performance.
                    symmetricAlgorithm.KeySize = 256;
                    symmetricAlgorithm.Mode = CipherMode.CBC;
                    symmetricAlgorithm.Padding = PaddingMode.PKCS7;
                    break;
                default:
                    // An algorithm we don't understand
                    throw new CryptographicException();
            }

            // Instead of using the master key directly, derive a key for our chosen
            // HMAC algorithm based upon the master key.
            //
            // Since none of the symmetric encryption algorithms currently in .NET
            // support key sizes greater than 256-bit, we can use HMACSHA256 with
            // NIST SP 800-108 5.1 (Counter Mode KDF) to derive a value that is
            // no smaller than the key size, then Array.Resize to trim it down as
            // needed.

            using (HMAC hmac = new HMACSHA256(masterKey))
            {
                // i=1, Label=ASCII(cipher)
                byte[] cipherKey = hmac.ComputeHash(
                    new byte[] { 1, 99, 105, 112, 104, 101, 114 });

                // Resize the array to the desired keysize. KeySize is in bits,
                // and Array.Resize wants the length in bytes.
                Array.Resize(ref cipherKey, symmetricAlgorithm.KeySize / 8);

                symmetricAlgorithm.Key = cipherKey;
            }

            return symmetricAlgorithm;
        }

        /// <summary>
        /// Open a properly configured <see cref="HMAC"/> conforming to the scheme
        /// identified by <paramref name="aeMac"/>.
        /// </summary>
        /// <param name="aeMac">The message authentication mode to open.</param>
        /// <param name="masterKey">The master key from which other keys derive.</param>
        /// <returns>
        /// An HMAC object with the proper key, or <c>null</c> on unknown algorithms.
        /// </returns>
        private static HMAC GetMac(AeMac aeMac, byte[] masterKey)
        {
            HMAC hmac;

            switch (aeMac)
            {
                case AeMac.HMACSHA256:
                    hmac = new HMACSHA256();
                    break;
                case AeMac.HMACSHA384:
                    hmac = new HMACSHA384();
                    break;
                default:
                    // An algorithm we don't understand
                    throw new CryptographicException();
            }

            // Instead of using the master key directly, derive a key for our chosen
            // HMAC algorithm based upon the master key.
            // Since the output size of the HMAC is the same as the ideal key size for
            // the HMAC, we can use the master key over a fixed input once to perform
            // NIST SP 800-108 5.1 (Counter Mode KDF):
            hmac.Key = masterKey;

            // i=1, Context=ASCII(MAC)
            byte[] newKey = hmac.ComputeHash(new byte[] { 1, 77, 65, 67 });

            hmac.Key = newKey;
            return hmac;
        }

        // A simple helper method to ensure that the offset (writePos) always moves
        // forward with new data.
        private static void Append(byte[] newData, byte[] combinedData, ref int writePos)
        {
            Buffer.BlockCopy(newData, 0, combinedData, writePos, newData.Length);
            writePos += newData.Length;
        }

        /// <summary>
        /// Compare the contents of two arrays in an amount of time which is only
        /// dependent on <paramref name="length"/>.
        /// </summary>
        /// <param name="a">An array to compare to <paramref name="b"/>.</param>
        /// <param name="aOffset">
        /// The starting position within <paramref name="a"/> for comparison.
        /// </param>
        /// <param name="b">An array to compare to <paramref name="a"/>.</param>
        /// <param name="bOffset">
        /// The starting position within <paramref name="b"/> for comparison.
        /// </param>
        /// <param name="length">
        /// The number of bytes to compare between <paramref name="a"/> and
        /// <paramref name="b"/>.</param>
        /// <returns>
        /// <c>true</c> if both <paramref name="a"/> and <paramref name="b"/> have
        /// sufficient length for the comparison and all of the applicable values are the
        /// same in both arrays; <c>false</c> otherwise.
        /// </returns>
        /// <remarks>
        /// An "insufficient data" <c>false</c> response can happen early, but otherwise
        /// a <c>true</c> or <c>false</c> response take the same amount of time.
        /// </remarks>
        [MethodImpl(MethodImplOptions.NoInlining | MethodImplOptions.NoOptimization)]
        private static bool CryptographicEquals(
            byte[] a,
            int aOffset,
            byte[] b,
            int bOffset,
            int length)
        {
            Debug.Assert(a != null);
            Debug.Assert(b != null);
            Debug.Assert(length >= 0);

            int result = 0;

            if (a.Length - aOffset < length || b.Length - bOffset < length)
            {
                return false;
            }

            unchecked
            {
                for (int i = 0; i < length; i++)
                {
                    // Bitwise-OR of subtraction has been found to have the most
                    // stable execution time.
                    //
                    // This cannot overflow because bytes are 1 byte in length, and
                    // result is 4 bytes.
                    // The OR propagates all set bytes, so the differences are only
                    // present in the lowest byte.
                    result = result | (a[i + aOffset] - b[i + bOffset]);
                }
            }

            return result == 0;
        }
    }
}

See also